Today in History - January 20, 1029: Alp Arslan, Sultan of the Seljuq Empire, was born
Alp Arslan
"The Byzantine writers deplore the loss of an inestimable pearl: they forgot to mention that, in this fatal day, the Asiatic provinces of Rome were irretrievably sacrificed." - Edward Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire
Everybody knows the Turks were badass. That's a given. I mean, you can't read anything about the military history of Eastern Europe without being regaled with tales of insane, daring Christian knights demonstrating the quality of their solidified concrete holy nutsacks by standing up to the mighty, face-crushing Turkish hordes and somehow pulling victory from the jaws of inevitable defeat. So it stands to reason that since fighting the Turks and surviving without being impaled by your own spiked gauntlets was such a tremendous, noteworthy achievement, then these were obviously a ruthless, vicious, powerful civilization of earth-breaking killmongers so insanely tough that they ate baby reindeer and urinated Red Bull energy drinks, right? Well, if that's the case, why is it that most Westerners can't name a single notable Turkish hero aside from Suleiman the Magnificent, Barbarossa, and maybe Selim the Grim?
The Turks, much like the Persians, just need a better PR campaign or something, because they have a totally badass warrior pedigree on par with that of history's best. These guys forged a series of tempered-steel empires that dominated the fuck out of huge tracts of lands across Europe and Asia, and maintined a millenia-spanning stranglehold on Eastern military dominance running from the pre-Crusade middle ages to the end of World War I - a badass Xbox Live achievement that they owe in no small part to the warrior-king Alp Arslan and the role he played in the knife-point castration of the armies of Byzantium in the 11th century.
Adud Al-Dawla Abu Shuja Alp Arslan Muhammad succeeded his uncle Tughril Bey as Sultan of the Seljuk Turks in 1063. His first order of business was of course to crush all opposition to his accession and have any pretenders to the throne violently executed by the sharpest gardening instruments in the Turkish Empire. Once that was out of the way, Alp Arlsan decided to show the world that even though the Seljuks were newcomers to the scene in the Middle East, that this Sunni Muslim empire of nomadic Central Asian steppe warriors could get out there and brain fools with the best of them. Alp Arlsan, known as "The Valiant Lion" of the Turks, immediately assembled an appropriately-imposing force of Turkish cavalry and horse archers and set his sights on destroying all trace of the Byzantine Empire in Asia Minor.
At this point in history, the Eastern Roman Empire of Byzantium was still a pretty serious military threat, but years of über-corrupt rulers, reckless spending, and miscellaneous douchery left the entire system completely decrepit and over-the-hill, and Alp Arslan figured that he was just was the guy to deliver the final kick in the balls that was going to show the Greeks once and for all that they were no longer the big dogs in the Mediterranean. Alp and his armies figured the best way to demonstrate this fact was by blitzing into a number of small buffer states between Byzantium and the Seljuk Empire and utterly laying waste to everything they could find. The Turks, who were pretty pumped up about stabbing with intent to kill, found themselves facing off against Byzantine mercenaries who had gone months without getting paid and had shockingly little interest in getting themselves decapitated for a king who couldn't give a shit about them. The Turks captured Phyrgia, Cappadocia, Anatolia, and a bunch of other places that seem to only exist in ancient times, before facing stiffer resistance in Armenia and Georgia. The Armenians fought so hard and pissed Alp Arslan off so hard that after he finally captured their capital he ordered it torched to the ground and the entire population massacred. Hey, I didn't say he was a fine upstanding citizen – I said he was a dude you didn't want to fuck around with.
After pretty much smoking everything in Asia Minor by the end of 1068, Alp Arlsan decided to leave the mop-up work to his lieutenants, and he headed back home to his harem to chill with his plunder and babes and start planning an invasion of Fatimid Egypt (who, like Byzantium, was also pissing him off for some unspecified reason). Well no sooner did Double-A leave Asia Minor than some brave-yet-delusionally-misguided Greek Emperor decided he was going to put a humongoid army together and actually start fighting back against these unstoppable face-crushing marauders. Emperor Romanus IV Diogenes assembled a tremendous force of Macedonians, Greeks, Romans, Normans, Armenians, French, Modavians, and whatever else he could find (he even had a member of the Scottish royal family in his ranks) and set out to teach Alp a lesson in getting his face punctured by a flying sword-stroke of Western justice.
The balls-out assault caught Alp Arslan's men off-guard, and before you know it Diogenes started winning a bunch of victories and talking about how he was the fucking hottest shit since Greek Fire. The Turks were driven back beyond the Euphrates River by an army of 100,000 Western knights, and Diogenes laid siege to the remainder of the Turkish army at the city of Manzikert in 1071.
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Script:
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Philosophy is complicated stuff. It’s the search for meaning, for
greater understanding, for answers to the questions surrounding our
existence, our purpose, and the universe itself. So obviously,
attempting to sum it up in a few pithy blurbs is a fool’s errand. Well,
consider us your fool, because that’s exactly what we’ve set out to do.
We’re certain Socrates would question our motives, Emerson would
criticize us for writing on the subject so far removed from nature, and
Nietzsche would make fun of us until we cried. But we think it’s worth
the risk to give you a quick shot of knowledge while you prepare for
your exam, tighten up your essay, or begin the research process.
Because philosophy is such a broad and encompassing subject — I mean,
it’s basically about everything — we don’t claim to cover the subject
comprehensively. Honestly, the only real way you can fully comprehend
the theories, epistemologies, and frameworks described here is to read
the writing created by — and critique dedicated to — each of these
thinkers. But what follows is your introduction, a rapid-fire look at 20
Major Philosophers, their Big Ideas, and their most important written
works. But think fast, because these mindblowers come at a furious pace.
Thomas Aquinas was a 13th century Dominican friar, theologian and
Doctor of the Church, born in what is known today as the Lazio region of
Italy. His most important contribution to Western thought is the
concept of natural theology (sometimes referred to as Thomism in tribute
to his influence). This belief system holds that the existence of God
is verified through reason and rational explanation, as opposed to
through scripture or religious experience. This ontological approach is
among the central premises underpinning modern Catholic philosophy and
liturgy. His writings, and Aquinas himself, are still considered among
the preeminent models for Catholic priesthood. His ideas also remain
central to theological debate, discourse, and modes of worship.
Aquinas’ Big Ideas
Adhered to the Platonic/Aristotelian principle of realism, which
holds that certain absolutes exist in the universe, including the
existence of the universe itself;
Focused much of his work on reconciling Aristotelian and Christian
principles, but also expressed a doctrinal openness to Jewish and Roman
philosophers, all to the end of divining truth wherever it could be
found;
The Second Vatican Council (1962–65) declared his Summa Theolgoiae —
a compendium of all the teachings of the Catholic Church to that
point — “Perennial Philosophy.”
Aristotle is among the most important and influential thinkers and
teachers in human history, often considered — alongside his mentor,
Plato — to be a father of Western Philosophy.” Born in the northern part
of ancient Greece, his writings and ideas on metaphysics, ethics,
knowledge, and methodological inquiry are at the very root of human
thought. Most philosophers who followed — both those who echoed and
those who opposed his ideas — owed a direct debt to his wide-ranging
influence. Aristotle’s enormous impact was a consequence both of the
breadth of his writing and his personal reach during his lifetime.
In addition to being a philosopher, Aristotle was also a scientist,
which led him to consider an enormous array of topics, and largely
through the view that all concepts and knowledge are ultimately based on
perception. A small sampling of topics covered in Aristotle’s writing
includes physics, biology, psychology, linguistics, logic, ethics,
rhetoric, politics, government, music, theatre, poetry, and metaphysics.
He was also in a unique position to prevail directly over thinking
throughout the known world, tutoring a young Alexander the Great at the
request of the future conqueror’s father, Phillip II of Macedon. This
position of influence gave Aristotle the means to establish the library
at Lyceum, where he produced hundreds of writings on papyrus scrolls.
And of course, it also gave him direct sway over the mind of a man who
would one day command an empire stretching from Greece to northwestern
India. The result was an enormous sphere of influence for Aristotle’s
ideas, one that only began to be challenged by Renaissance thinkers
nearly 2,000 years later.
Aristotle’s Big Ideas
Asserted the use of logic as a method of argument and offered the basic methodological template for analytical discourse;
Espoused the understanding that knowledge is built from the study of
things that happen in the world, and that some knowledge is universal —
a prevailing set of ideas throughout Western Civilization thereafter;
Defined metaphysics as “the knowledge of immaterial being,” and used
this framework to examine the relationship between substance (a
combination of matter and form) and essence, from which he devises that
man is comprised from a unity of the two.
Chinese teacher, writer, and philosopher Confucius viewed himself as a
channel for the theological ideas and values of the imperial dynasties
that came before him. With an emphasis on family and social harmony,
Confucius advocated for a way of life that reflected a spiritual and
religious tradition, but which was also distinctly humanist and even
secularist. Confucius — thought to be a contemporary of Taoist
progenitor Lao-Tzu — had a profound impact on the development of Eastern
legal customs and the emergence of a scholarly ruling class.
Confucianism would engage in historic push-pull with the philosophies of
Buddhism and Taoism, experiencing ebbs and flows in influence, its high
points coming during the Han (206 BCE–220 CE), Tang (618–907 CE), and
Song (960–1296 CE) Dynasties. As Buddhism became the dominant spiritual
force in China, Confucianism declined in practice. However, it remains a
foundational philosophy underlying Asian and Chinese attitudes toward
scholarly, legal, and professional pursuits.
Confucius’ Big Ideas
Developed a belief system focused on both personal and governmental
morality through qualities such as justice, sincerity, and positive
relationships with others;
Advocated for the importance of strong family bonds, including
respect for the elder, veneration of one’s ancestors, and marital
loyalty;
Believed in the value of achieving ethical harmony through skilled
judgment rather than knowledge of rules, denoting that one should
achieve morality through self-cultivation.
A French philosopher, mathematician, and scientist, Descartes was
born in France but spent 20 years of his life in the Dutch Republic. As a
member of the Dutch States Army, then as the Prince of Orange and
subsequently as Stadtholder (a position of national leadership
in the Dutch Republic), Descartes wielded considerable intellectual
influence over the period known as the Dutch Golden Age. He often
distinguished himself by refuting or attempting to undo the ideas of
those that came before him.
Descartes’ Big Ideas
Discards belief in all things that are not absolutely certain,
emphasizing the understanding of that which can be known for sure;
Is recognized as the father of analytical geometry;
Regarded as one of the leading influences in the Scientific
Revolution — a period of intense discovery, revelation, and innovation
that rippled through Europe between the Renaissance and Enlightenment
eras (roughly speaking, 15th to 18th centuries).
A Boston-born writer, philosopher, and poet, Ralph Waldo Emerson is
the father of the transcendentalist movement. This was a distinctly
American philosophical orientation that rejected the pressures imposed
by society, materialism, and organized religion in favor of the ideals
of individualism, freedom, and a personal emphasis on the soul’s
relationship with the surrounding natural world. Though not explicitly a
“naturalist” himself, Emerson’s ideals were taken up by this 20th
century movement. He was also seen as a key figure in the American
romantic movement.
Emerson’s Big Ideas
Wrote on the importance of subjects such as self-reliance, experiential living, and the preeminence of the soul;
Referred to “the infinitude of the private man” as his central doctrine;
Was a mentor and friend to fellow influential transcendentalist Henry David Thoureau.
Historian, social theorist, and philosopher Michel Foucault, born in
the riverfront city of Poiltiers, France, dedicated much of his teaching
and writing to the examination of power and knowledge and their
connection to social control. Though often identified as a
postmodernist, Foucault preferred to think of himself as a critic of
modernity. His service as an international diplomat on behalf of France
also influenced his understanding of social constructs throughout
history and how they have served to enforce racial, religious, and
sexual inequality. His ideals have been particularly embraced by
progressive movements, and he allied with many during his lifetime.
Active in movements against racism, human rights abuses, prisoner
abuses, and marginalization of the mentally ill, he is often cited as a
major influence in movements for social justice, human rights, and
feminism. More broadly speaking, his examination of power and social
control has had a direct influence on the studies of sociology,
communications, and political science.
Foucault’s Big Ideas
Held the conviction that the study of philosophy must begin through a close and ongoing study of history;
Demanded that social constructs be more closely examined for
hierarchical inequalities, as well as through an analysis of the
corresponding fields of knowledge supporting these unequal structures;
Believed oppressed humans are entitled to rights and they have a
duty to rise up against the abuse of power to protect these rights.
A Scottish-born historian, economist, and philosopher, Hume is often
grouped with thinkers such as John Locke, Thomas Hobbes, and Sir Francis
Bacon as part of a movement called British Empiricism. He was focused
on creating a “naturalistic science of man” that delves into the
psychological conditions defining human nature. In contrast to
rationalists such as Descartes, Hume was preoccupied with the way that
passions (as opposed to reason) govern human behavior. This, Hume
argued, predisposed human beings to knowledge founded not on the
existence of certain absolutes but on personal experience. As a
consequence of these ideas, Hume would be among the first major thinkers
to refute dogmatic religious and moral ideals in favor of a more
sentimentalist approach to human nature. His belief system would help to
inform the future movements of utilitarianism and logical positivism,
and would have a profound impact on scientific and theological discourse
thereafter.
Hume’s Big Ideas
Articulated the “problem of induction,” suggesting we cannot
rationally justify our belief in causality, that our perception only
allows us to experience events that are typically conjoined, and that
causality cannot be empirically asserted as the connecting force in that
relationship;
Assessed that human beings lack the capacity to achieve a true
conception of the self, that our conception is merely a “bundle of
sensations” that we connect to formulate the idea of the self;
Hume argued against moral absolutes, instead positing that our
ethical behavior and treatment of others is compelled by emotion,
sentiment, and internal passions, that we are inclined to positive
behaviors by their likely desirable outcomes.
Prussian-born (and therefore identified as a German philosopher),
Kant is considered among the most essential figures in modern
philosophy, an advocate of reason as the source for morality, and a
thinker whose ideas continue to permeate ethical, epistemological, and
political debate. What perhaps most distinguishes Kant is his innate
desire to find a synthesis between rationalists like Descartes and
empiricists like Hume, to decipher a middle ground that defers to human
experience without descending into skepticism. To his own way of
thinking, Kant was pointing a way forward by resolving a central
philosophical impasse.
Kant’s Big Ideas
Defined the “Categorical imperative,” the idea that there are
intrinsically good and moral ideas to which we all have a duty, and that
rational individuals will inherently find reason in adhering to moral
obligation;
Argued that humanity can achieve a perpetual peace through universal democracy and international cooperation;
Asserted that the concepts of time and space, as well as cause and
effect, are essential to the human experience, and that our
understanding of the world is conveyed only by our senses and not
necessarily by the underlying (and likely unseen) causes of the
phenomena we observe.
A Danish theologian, social critic, and philosopher, Kierkegaard is
viewed by many as the most important existentialist philosopher. His
work dealt largely with the idea of the single individual. His thinking
tended to prioritize concrete reality over abstract thought. Within this
construct, he viewed personal choice and commitment as preeminent. This
orientation played a major part in his theology as well. He focused on
the importance of the individual’s subjective relationship with God, and
his work addressed the themes of faith, Christian love, and human
emotion. Because Kierkegaard’s work was at first only available in
Danish, it was only after his work was translated that his ideas
proliferated widely throughout Western Europe. This proliferation was a
major force in helping existentialism take root in the 20th century.
Kierkegaard’s Big Ideas
Explored the idea of objective vs. subjective truths, and argued
that theological assertions were inherently subjective and arbitrary
because they could not be verified or invalidated by science;
Was highly critical of the entanglement between State and Church;
First described the concept of angst, defining it as a dread the
comes from anxieties over choice, freedom, and ambiguous feelings.
10. Lao-Tzu (also Laozi, lived between the 6th and 4th century BCE)
Historians differ on exactly when Lao-Tzu lived and taught, but it’s
largely held that some time between the 6th and 4th centuries BCE, the
“old master” founded philosophical Taoism. Viewed as a divine figure in
traditional Chinese religions, his ideas and writings would form one of
the major pillars (alongside Confucius and the Buddha) for Eastern
thought. Lao-Tzu espoused an ideal life lived through the Dao or Tao
(roughly translated as “the way”). As such, Taoism is equally rooted in
religion and philosophy. In traditional telling, though Lao-Tzu never
opened a formal school, he worked as an archivist for the royal court of
Zhou Dynasty. This gave him access to an extensive body of writing and
artifacts, which he synthesized into his own poetry and prose. As a
result of his writing, his influence spread widely during his lifetime.
In fact, one version of his biography implies he may well have been a
direct mentor to the Buddha (or, in some versions, was the Buddha
himself). There are lot of colorful narratives surrounding Lao-Tzu, some
of which are almost certainly myth. In fact, there are some historians
who even question whether or not Lao-Tzu was a real person. Historical
accounts differ on who he was, exactly when he lived and which works he
contributed to the canon of Taoism. However, in most traditional
tellings, Lao-Tzu was the living embodiment of the philosophy known as
Taoism and author of its primary text, the Tao Te Ching.
Lao-Tzu’s Big Ideas
Espoused awareness of the self through meditation;
Disputed conventional wisdom as inherently biased, and urged
followers of the Tao to find natural balance between the body, senses,
and desires;
Urged individuals to achieve a state of wu wei, freedom from desire, an early staple tenet of Buddhist tradition thereafter.
An English physicist and philosopher, John Locke was a prominent
thinker during the Enlightenment period. Part of the movement of British
Empiricism alongside fellow countrymen David Hume, Thomas Hobbes, and
Sir Francis Bacon, Locke is regarded as an important contributor to the
development of the social contract theory and is sometimes identified as
the father of liberalism. Indeed, his discourses on identity, the self,
and the impact of sensory experience would be essential revelations to
many Enlightenment thinkers and, consequently, to real revolutionaries.
His philosophy is said to have figured prominently into the formulation
of the Declaration of Independence that initiated America’s war for
independence from the British.
Locke’s Big Ideas
Coined the term tabula rasa (blank slate) to denote that
the human mind is born unformed, and that ideas and rules are only
enforced through experience thereafter;
Established the method of introspection, focusing on one’s own
emotions and behaviors in search of a better understanding of the self;
Argued that in order to be true, something must be capable of
repeated testing, a view that girded his ideology with the intent of
scientific rigor.
Niccolo di Bernardo dei Machiavelli is at once among the most
influential and widely debated of history’s thinkers. A writer, public
office-holder, and philosopher of Renaissance Italy, Machiavelli both
participated in and wrote prominently on political matters, to the
extent that he has even been identified by some as the father of modern
political science. He is also seen as a proponent of deeply
questionable — some would argue downright evil — values and ideas.
Machiavelli was an empiricist who used experience and historical fact to
inform his beliefs, a disposition which allowed him to divorce politics
not just from theology but from morality as well. His most prominent
works described the parameters of effective rulership, in which he seems
to advocate for leadership by any means which retain power, including
deceit, murder, and oppression. While it is sometimes noted in his
defense that Machiavelli himself did not live according to these
principles, this “Machiavellian” philosophy is often seen as a template
for tyranny and dictatorship, even in the present day.
Machiavelli’s Big Ideas
Famously asserted that while it would be best to be both loved and
feared, the two rarely coincide, and thus, greater security is found in
the latter;
Identified as a “humanist,” and believed it necessary to establish a
new kind of state in defiance of law, tradition and particularly, the
political preeminence of the Church;
Viewed ambition, competition and war as inevitable parts of human nature, even seeming to embrace all of these tendencies.
A German-born economist, political theorist, and philosopher, Karl
Marx wrote some of the most revolutionary philosophical content ever
produced. Indeed, so pertinent was his writing to the human condition
during his lifetime, he was exiled from his native country. This event
would, however, also make it possible for his most important ideas to
find a popular audience. Upon arriving in London, Marx took up work with
fellow German Friedrich Engels. Together, they devised an assessment of
class, society, and power dynamics that revealed deep inequalities, and
exposed the economic prerogatives for state-sponsored violence,
oppression, and war. Marx predicted that the inequalities and violence
inherent in capitalism would ultimately lead to its collapse. From its
ashes would rise a new socialist system, a classless society where all
participants (as opposed to just wealthy private owners) have access to
the means for production. What made the Marxist system of thought so
impactful though was its innate call to action, couched in Marx’s
advocacy for a working class revolution aimed at overthrowing an unequal
system. The philosophy underlying Marxism, and his revolutionary
fervor, would ripple throughout the world, ultimately transforming
entire spheres of thought in places like Soviet Russia, Eastern Europe,
and Red China. In many ways, Karl Marx presided over a philosophical
revolution that continues in the present day in myriad forms of
communism, socialism, socialized democracy, and grassroots political
organization.
Marx’s Big Ideas
Advocated a view called historical materialism, arguing for the
demystification of thought and idealism in favor of closer
acknowledgement of the physical and material actions shaping the world;
Argued that societies develop through class struggle, and that this would ultimately lead to the dismantling of capitalism;
Characterized capitalism as a production system in which there are
inherent conflicts of interest between the bourgeoisie (the ruling
class), and the proletariat (the working class), and that these
conflicts are couched in the idea that the latter must sell their labor
to the former for wages that offer no stake in production.
British economist, public servant, and philosopher John Stuart Mill
is considered a linchpin of modern social and political theory. He
contributed a critical body of work to the school of thought called
liberalism, an ideology founding on the extension of individual
liberties and economic freedoms. As such, Mill himself advocated
strongly for the preserving of individual rights and called for
limitations to the power and authority of the state over the individual.
Mill was also a proponent of utilitarianism, which holds that the best
action is one that maximizes utility, or stated more simply, one that
provide the greatest benefit to all. This and other ideas found in
Mill’s works have been essential to providing rhetorical basis for
social justice, anti-poverty, and human rights movements. For his own
part, as a member of Parliament, Mill became the first office-holding
Briton to advocate for the right of women to vote.
Mill’s Big Ideas
Advocated strongly for the human right of free speech, and asserted
that free discourse is necessary for social and intellectual progress;
Determined that most of history can be understood as a struggle
between liberty and authority, and that limits must be placed on
rulership such that it reflects society’s wishes;
Stated the need for a system of “constitutional checks” on state authority as a way of protecting political liberties.
Friedrich Nietzsche was a poet, cultural critic, and philosopher, as
well as possessor of among the most gifted minds in human history. The
German thinker’s system of ideas would have a profound impact on the
Western World, contributing deeply to intellectual discourse both during
and after his life. Writing on an enormous breadth of subjects, from
history, religion and science to art, culture and the tragedies of Greek
and Roman Antiquity, Nietzsche wrote with savage wit and a love of
irony. He used these forces to pen deconstructive examinations of truth,
Christian morality, and the impact of social constructs on our
formulation of moral values. Also essential to Nietzshe’s writing is
articulation of the crisis of nihilism, the basic idea that all things
lack meaning, including life itself. This idea in particular would
remain an important component of the existentialist and surrealist
movements that followed.
Nietzsche’s Big Ideas
Favored perspectivism, which held that truth is not objective but is
the consequence of various factors effecting individual perspective;
Articulated ethical dilemma as a tension between the master vs.
slave morality; the former in which we make decisions based on the
assessment of consequences, and the latter in which we make decisions
based on our conception of good vs. evil;
Believed in the individual’s creative capacity to resist social
norms and cultural convention in order to live according to a greater
set of virtues.
Greek philosopher and teacher Plato did nothing less than found the
first institution of higher learning in the Western World, establishing
the Academy of Athens and cementing his own status as the most important
figure in the development of western philosophical tradition. As the
pupil of Socrates and the mentor to Aristotle, Plato is the connecting
figure in what might be termed the great triumvirate of Greek thought in
both philosophy and science. A quote by British philosopher Alfred North Whitehead sums up
the enormity of his influence, noting “the safest general
characterization of the European philosophical tradition is that it
consists of a series of footnotes to Plato.” Indeed, it could be argued
that Plato founded political philosophy, introducing both the dialectic
and dialogic forms of writing as ways to explore various areas of
thought. (Often, in his dialogues, he employed his mentor Socrates as
the vessel for his own thoughts and ideas.) While he was not the first
individual to partake of the activity of philosophy, he was perhaps the
first to truly define what it meant, to articulate its purpose, and to
reveal how it could be applied with scientific rigor. This orientation
provided a newly concreted framework for considering questions of
ethics, politics, knowledge, and theology. Such is to say that it is
nearly impossible to sum up the impact of Plato’s ideas on science,
ethics, mathematics, or the evolution of thought itself other than to
say it has been total, permeating, and inexorable from the tradition of
rigorous thinking itself.
Plato’s Big Ideas
Expressed the view, often referred to as Platonism, that those whose
beliefs are limited only to perception are failing to achieve a higher
level of perception, one available only to those who can see beyond the
material world;
Articulated the theory of forms, the belief that the material world
is an apparent and constantly changing world but that another, invisible
world provides unchanging causality for all that we do see;
Held the foundational epistemological view of “justified true
belief,” that for one to know that a proposition is true, one must have
justification for the relevant true proposition.
Rousseau was a writer, philosopher, and — unique among entrants on
this list — a composer of operas and classical compositions. Born in
Geneva, then a city-state in the Swiss Confederacy, Rousseau would be
one of the most consequential thinkers of the Enlightenment era. His
ideas on human morality, inequality, and most importantly, on the right
to rule, would have an enormous and definable impact not just on
thinking in Europe, but on the actual power dynamics within Western
Civilization. Indeed, his most important works would identify personal
property as the root to inequality and would refute the premise that
monarchies are divinely appointed to rule. Rousseau proposed the
earth-shattering idea that only the people have a true right to rule.
These ideas fomented the French Revolution, and more broadly, helped
bring an end to a centuries-old entanglement between Church, Crown, and
Country. Rousseau may be credited for providing a basic framework for
classical republicanism, a form of government centered around the ideas
of civil society, citizenship, and mixed governance.
Rousseau’s Big Ideas
Suggested that Man was at his best in a primitive state — suspended
between brute animalistic urges on one end of the spectrum and the
decadence of civilization on the other — and therefore uncorrupted in
his morals;
Suggested that the further we deviate from our “state of nature,”
the closer we move to the “decay of the species,” an idea that comports
with modern environmental and conservationist philosophies;
Wrote extensively on education and, in advocating for an education
that emphasizes the development of individual moral character, is
sometimes credited as an early proponent of child-centered education.
A French novelist, activist, and philosopher, Sartre was a leading
exponent of the 20th century existentialist movement as well as a vocal
proponent of Marxism and socialism. He advocated for resistance to
oppressive social constructs and argued for the importance of achieving
an authentic way of being. His writing coincided with, and contrasted,
the sweep of fascism through Europe, the rise of authoritarian regimes,
and the spread of Nazism. Sartre’s ideas took on increased importance
during this time, as did his actions. Sartre became active in the
socialist resistance, which aimed its activities at French Nazi
collaborators. Of note, one of his activist collaborators was both a
romantic partner and a fellow major cohort of existentialism, Simone de
Beauvoir. Following the war, Sartre’s writing and political engagement
centered on efforts at anticolonialism, including involvement in the
resistance to French colonization of Algeria. In fact, his involvement
earned Sartre two near-miss bomb attacks at the hands of French
paramilitary forces. Also notable, Sartre was supportive of the Soviet
Union throughout his lifetime. Though occasionally serving to raise
issues regarding human rights abuses as an outside observer, he praised
the Soviet Union’s attempt at manifesting Marxism.
Sartre’s Big Ideas
Believed that human beings are “condemned to be free,” that because
there is no Creator who is responsible for our actions, each of us alone
is responsible for everything we do;
Called for the experience of “death consciousness,” an understanding
of our mortality that promotes an authentic life, one spent in search
of experience rather than knowledge;
Argued that the existence of free will is in fact evidence of the
universe’s indifference to the individual, an illustration that our
freedom to act toward objects is essentially meaningless and therefore
of no consequence to be intervened upon by the world.
A necessary inclusion by virtue of his role as, essentially, the
founder of Western Philosophy, Socrates is nonetheless unique among
entrants on this list for having produced no written works reflecting
his key ideas or principles. Thus, the body of his thoughts and ideas is
left to be deciphered through the works of his two most prominent
students, Plato and Xenophon, as well as to the legions of historians
and critics who have written on him since. The classical Greek thinker
is best known through Plato’s dialogues, which reveal a key contributor
to the fields of ethics and education. And because Socrates is best
known as a teacher of thought and insight, it is perhaps appropriate
that his most widely recognized contribution is a way of approaching
education that remains fundamentally relevant even today. The so-called
Socratic Method, which involves the use of of questioning and discourse
to promote open dialogue on complex topics and to lead pupils to their
own insights, is on particular display in the Platonic dialogues. His
inquisitive approach also positioned him as a central social and moral
critic of the Athenian leadership, which ultimately led to his trial and
execution for corrupting the minds of young Athenians.
Socrates’ Big Ideas
Argued that Athenians were wrong-headed in their emphasis on
families, careers, and politics at the expense of the welfare of their
souls;
Is sometimes attributed the statement “I know that I know nothing,”
to denote an awareness of his ignorance, and in general, the limitations
of human knowledge;
Believed misdeeds were a consequence of ignorance, that those who
engaged in nonvirtuous behavior did so because they didn’t know any
better.
Born in Austria to a wealthy family, Wittgenstein is one of
philosophy’s more colorful and unusual characters. He lived a life of
eccentricity and professional nomadism, dabbling in academia, military
service, education, and even as a hospital orderly. Moreover, during his
life, he wrote voluminously but published only a single manuscript. And
yet, he was recognized by his contemporaries as a genius. The
posthumous publication of his many volumes confirmed this view for
future generations, ultimately rendering Wittgenstein a towering figure
in the areas of logic, semantics, and the philosophy of mind. His
investigations of linguistics and psychology would prove particularly
revelatory, offering a distinctive window through which to newly
understand the nature of meaning and the limits of human conception.
Wittgenstein’s Big Ideas
Argued that conceptual confusion about language is the basis for most intellectual tension in philosophy;
Asserted that the meaning of words presupposes our understanding of
that meaning, and that our particular assignment of meaning comes from
the cultural and social constructs surrounding us;
Resolved that because thought is inextricably tied to language, and
because language is socially constructed, we have no real inner-space
for the realization of our thoughts, which is to say that the language
of our thoughts renders our thoughts inherently socially constructed.
We hope this was enlightening for you. If it doesn’t help you ace
your exam, it should at least give you plenty to think about. By all
means, go ponder the universe, yourself, and that frail, fickle thing we
call the human condition.
The power of storyboard, and animation rockstar Dudz Clotario’s secrets to winning competitions!
This was a talk about how I win in competitions.
Over 500+ wins in my lifetime. Sharing my secret on how I win in contests! #ShareYourBlessings 🙏😍🥳 #contestking #Godisgood #positivethinking Nasa 500+ na pala ang mga napanalunan ko mula pa nung elementary. 😲 Kaya ngayon shinishare ko kung paano ako nanalo. Madami na ang nagsabi saakin na nainspire sila sa talks at workshops ko. God is good! Share your blessings! Tuloy tuloy lang! Let your light shine! #contestking #ShareYourBlessings
Sharing! This was made around 2010, this is the time when every week I need to make an animation and enter a contest as stress reliever!
I needed to learn how to animate, so I look for contests then apply what I want to learn to my entry.
My concepts are made on the spot and the production time is also fast, it should be done only over the weekend! 😄😁😆
I won a lot of contests over the past years and was able to buy a house and a car. 🙏
This was the time when my expenses monthly is around 60k for the house and my salary is only 15k, 😭, but with determination and positive thinking, I was able to survive this.
Now, I do workshops and talks to share tips and tricks on how to do stopmotion animation and win in contests!
You can subscribe to my channel for more https://goo.gl/vRQ5KN
The Battle of Catalaunians Plains – when is a plain not a plain? The famous battle between Attila the Hun and Flavius Aetius in AD 451 was fought, it seems, over a ridge.
The name of the battle of the Catalaunian Plains has become the most dominant one for the climactic meeting of Attila’s Huns and a vast alliance of Romans, Visigoths, Franks and others joined to oppose him in AD 451. There were, however, many other names by which the battle was known; Catalaunian Fields, Campus Mauriacus,locusMauriacus (locusmeaning, rather unhelpfully, ‘location’), Maurica, Châlons, Troyes. All of these alternate names are not helped by the fact that we do not know the precise location of the battle and much ink has been spilt arguing for one location or another.
We know that Attila had rampaged across Germany and Gaul, sacking many towns. Jordanes tells us that Attila’s horde of rampaging Huns had 500,000 men. Very few scholars believe that number, but there were enough men with Attila (and they had wrought such destruction all over the Roman Empire in the previous ten years) that it was large enough to create the perception of Hunnic hordes we still have. Attila reached Orléans and there, either just before he breached the walls or even as he was breaching them, the allied army of the supreme Roman general Flavius Aetius (thecomes et magister utriusque militiae) and Visigothic King Theodoric came into view. There were other allies too: Alans, Franks, Sarmatians, Armoricans, Liticians, Burgundians, Saxons, Riparians, Olibriones, Riparioli and Briones. Some of these names defy identification but this large number of allies were probably amassed to at least try and match Attila’s numbers. Attila had allies of his own – Ostrogoths and Gepids – although Sidonius names a whole array of peoples (several of them fictional or from myth): Gepids, Rugi, Sciri, Neuri, Bastarnae, Thuringi, Bructeri, Franks and Burgundians. This was to be an enormous meeting of hostile peoples, perhaps the largest battle the ancient world ever saw.
Attila chose to retire from Orléans, probably towards Tricasses (modern Troyes, France) on the River Seine. As he prepared to cross the river by the bridge there, the forces of Aëtius and Theodoric caught up to him; they had followed him from Orléans. Other sources, however, give the location of the battle as close to Metz, or the Mauriac plain, even on the Loire or Danube. There was probably some celebrity in being the site of the battle and several candidates emerged. Paris, an unimportant town in 451, developed its own mythology of how it was saved from Attila by St Genevieve – but contemporary sources do not name it as a target. Modern scholars have argued incessantly over their favoured location, north, east or west of Troyes. The ancient town of Catalaunum is now Châlons-en-Champagne on the River Marne (hence the name the Battle of Châlons).
Our best account of the wars with Attila – although there are many which need to be sifted through – is the 6th-century historian Jordanes, who wrote two works that are extremely useful to us. Known as theGetica, theDe origine actibusque getarum(‘On the Origin and Deeds of the Goths’) traces the history of the Goths but also includes Hunnic history. Jordanes used the eyewitness Priscus of Panium as a source although some of his material seems to go further than Priscus does. Jordanes also wrote aRomana, a short history of the most noteworthy events in Rome’s history down to AD 552. Jordanes’ account of the battle in theGeticais the most complete we possess even though his details differ from other accounts and several modern authors do not follow it. Most importantly, Jordanes makes the crux of the entire battle the contest for a ridge. He describes the battlefield as a ‘plain rising by a sharp slope to a ridge’. Jordanes tells us that the Huns seized the right side of the ridge and the Visigoths the left, with the crest untaken; it would be there, at the crest, that the battle was decided. Both Aëtius and Attila realized that control of the crest would be crucial to the battle and, in the race to secure it, the cavalry of Aetius and Thorismund (Theodoric’s son and heir) reached it first and there they held off successive Hun cavalry attacks. The Huns tried again and again to take the ridge, Attila himself leading charges seeing that his personal command was necessary. The Romans and Visigoths on the crest also needed reinforcements and Theodoric led more Visigoths forward; in doing so he lost his life and Thorismund continued to fight not knowing he was now king. The battle began at 3pm on 20 June, close to the summer solstice, and fighting continued until nightfall, around 10pm; seven hours of continuous fighting. Only as night drew close did Attila break off his attacks and withdraw to his wagon laager. Confused fighting continued in the darkness – the allies pursued the retiring Huns but Thorismund pursued too keenly and got isolated in the Hun encampment and had to be rescued. Aëtius too got lost and isolated from his men – he spent the night in the Visigoth camp.
The battle has gone down as one of the most decisive in western history. This may not be strictly true as Attila remained a threat and invaded Italy in AD 452, plundering many cities in the north including Aquileia and Mediolanum (Milan). Catalaunian Plains was, however, certainly bloody. We are told of 300,000 casualties and Jordanes calls the battle the ‘graveyard of nations’. As it seems to have been primarily a cavalry battle, historians have sought for a flat plain on which the huge numbers of cavalry on both sides roamed. If we read our best sources closely, however, the battle was fought mainly for the control of a ridge. To find out exactly which ridge, you’ll have to get yourself a copy of CBT 67!
Sustainable Living PaperStopmotion animation Honorable Mention Sunhak Peace Prize.
Here are some Behind The Scene pictures of my paper stopmotion animation made from papercraft.
SUSTAINABLE LIVING- Sustainable Food Do you know that the food we enjoy eating like grilled steak and fried chicken have hidden costs to the environment? It begins with clearing natural habitats to make way for agriculture. Soil is fertilized with chemicals to maximize crop yield. Livestock feeding produces methane and animal waste.
Food production and distribution use fossil fuel. 1.3 billion tons of food produced globally is wasted every year. 3.3 billion tons of carbon dioxide are produced by food waste. The world’s population will increase to 10 billion by 2050. Food demand will increase by 60-70%.
This calls for sustainable food production like reducing the use of fossil fuel; Eat more plant-based food than meat. Adopt zero waste by reusing containers; and reducing food waste Let’s practice sustainable living to save the environment.
